Les termes « justice de Magdeburg » et « pitié de Magdeburg » ont également longtemps servi de prétexte aux protestants pour justifier l'exécution de catholiques. This included ambitious Imperial states like Lutheran Saxony and Catholic Bavaria, as well as France, which faced Habsburg territories on its borders in Flanders, Franche-Comté, and the Pyrenees. While both were primarily designed to support the dynastic ambitions of their leaders, they combined with events like the 1609 to 1614 War of the Jülich Succession to increase tensions throughout the Empire. La guerre de trente ans . When Ferdinand was elected king of Bohemia in 1617, he gained control of its electoral vote; however, his conservative Catholicism made him unpopular with the largely Protestant Bohemian nobility, who were also concerned at the erosion of their rights. Ferdinand still resisted signing, but after France gained a crushing victory over Spain at Lens in August, and with Swedish troops attacking Prague, he finally did so on 24 October 1648. [89], Between 1629 and 1631, plague exacerbated by troop movements killed 60,000 in Milan and 46,000 in Venice, with proportionate losses elsewhere. Entre la France et l'Espagne, la guerre va toutefois se prolonger jusqu'en 1659. [69], After Tilly's death, Ferdinand turned once again to Wallenstein; knowing Gustavus was over extended, he marched into Franconia and established himself at Fürth, threatening the Swedish supply chain. This second phase ended with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. [86], Northern Italy had been contested by France and the Habsburgs for centuries, since it was vital for control of South-West France, an area with a long history of opposition to the central authorities. The Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand first required the return of all property taken from the Catholic church since 1552, rather than leaving the courts to decide case by case as previously. [52], Many of Christian's German allies, such as Hesse-Kassel and Saxony, had little interest in replacing Imperial domination for Danish, while few of the subsidies agreed in the Treaty of the Hague were ever paid. 1638, 12 - 15 avril: Massacre du château de Hara: 37 000 7: Château de Hara, au Japon Spanish Empire [113] Although suggested towns over-stated losses to avoid taxes, individual records show serious declines; from 1620 to 1650, the population of Munich fell from 22,000 to 17,000, that of Augsburg from 48,000 to 21,000. Lire aussi: Jeu perfide entre réalité et … Although opposition to this act united all German princes regardless of religion, Maximilian of Bavaria was compromised by his acquisition of the Palatinate; while Protestants wanted Frederick restored and the position returned to that of 1618, the Catholic League argued only for pre-1627. [48], Ferdinand had paid Wallenstein for his support against Frederick with estates confiscated from the Bohemian rebels, and now contracted with him to conquer the north on a similar basis. Brunswick-Lüneburg (1634–1642) Delivering these commitments required his election as Emperor, which was not guaranteed; one alternative was Maximilian of Bavaria, who opposed the increase of Spanish influence in an area he considered his own, and tried to create a coalition with Saxony and the Palatinate to support his candidacy. Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War, La vida y hechos de Estebanillo González, hombre de buen humor, compuesta por él mismo, Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, "The French Army of the Thirty Years' War: Introduction and Maison du Roi", "Review Article: Spain and the Netherlands in the 17th Century", "Military developments in the Thirty Years War", "Lecture 6: Europe in the Age of Religious Wars, 1560–1715", "German 'witch' declared innocent after 385 years", "The Battle of Wittstock 1636: Conflicting Reports on a Swedish Victory in Germany", "The Socio-Economic Relations of Warfare and the Military Mortality Crises of the Thirty Years' War", "Real Wages and the Origins of Modern Economic Growth in Germany, 16th to 19th Centuries", "The Long-term Impact of the Thirty Years War: What Grain Price Data Reveal", "The Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics", http://www.mdsz.thulb.uni-jena.de/sz/index.php, Project "Peace of Westphalia" (among others with Essay Volumes of the 26th Exhibition of the Council of Europe "1648: War and Peace in Europe", 1998/99), BBC Radio4 documentary – The Invention of Germany: The Thirty Years' War and Magdeburg, - Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth, "The Thirty Years' War - how was peace achieved? These actions were greeted with approval by his domestic critics, who considered his pro-Spanish policy a betrayal of the Protestant cause. Il s’agit, en effet, de vous présenter des événements qui ont duré une génération ; à la fois fondateurs et actuels. [40], The strategic importance of the Palatinate and its proximity to the Spanish Road drew in external powers; in August 1620, the Spanish occupied the Lower Palatinate. [97], Negotiations with France and Sweden were conducted in conjunction with the Imperial Diet, and were multi-sided discussions involving many of the German states. It does not appear to have reversed ongoing macro-economic trends, such as the reduction of price differentials between regional markets, and a greater degree of market integration across Europe. Christian IV of Denmark was also Duke of Holstein, and it was in this capacity he joined the war in 1625. A Spanish offensive in 1636 reached Corbie in Northern France; although it caused panic in Paris, lack of supplies forced them to retreat, and it was not repeated. Le 3 avril 1631, Tilly, à la tête des troupes de la Ligue catholique, entreprit de s'en emparer. La guerre de Trente Ans fut une suite de conflits armés qui mit l’Europe à sang de 1618 à 1648 . Les trois premières s’achèvent sur un succès du camp impérial et catholique, ce qui engage dans le conflit, à chaque fois, un nouvel acteur pour soutenir le camp protestant. [43], At a meeting of the Imperial Diet in February 1623, Ferdinand forced through provisions transferring Frederick's titles, lands and electoral vote to Maximilian. Les actes de guerre et de pillage durent jusqu'au 24 mai. [79] Mazarin began seeking a negotiated peace; 25 years of constant war had devastated the countryside, forcing armies to spend more time foraging than fighting, and drastically reducing their ability to sustain campaigns. (history documentary)", "The 30 Years' War (1618–48) and the Second Defenestration of Prague – Professor Peter Wilson", Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution, Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart, Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII, Pope Pius XII Consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, International Alliance of Catholic Knights, Rise of the Evangelical Church in Latin America, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thirty_Years%27_War&oldid=995360779, 17th-century military history of the Kingdom of England, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from June 2016, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia articles with KULTURNAV identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, The Thirty Years' War is briefly referenced in the survival horror game. When Frederick refused to admit defeat, the war expanded into the Palatinate, whose strategic importance drew in external powers, notably the Dutch Republic and Spain. Après sa chute, (20 mai 1631) les soldats impériaux est allé hors de contrôle et ont massacré 25 000 des habitants. [80], After Wittstock, the Swedish army regained the initiative in Germany; at Second Breitenfeld in October 1642, Swedish commander Lennart Torstenson defeated an Imperial army led by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria and Ottavio Piccolomini. This view is now generally accepted by historians. [126], The Peace reconfirmed "German liberties", ending Habsburg attempts to convert the Holy Roman Empire into an absolutist state similar to Spain. [31], Ferdinand reconfirmed Protestant religious freedoms when elected king of Bohemia in May 1617, but his record in Styria led to the suspicion he was only awaiting a chance to overturn them. Massacres, famines, pestes déciment plus de la moitié de la population, et c'est une Alsace misérable qu'en des clauses obscures le traité de … [116], The breakdown of social order caused by the war was in some ways more significant and longer lasting than the immediate damage. On 24 October, Ferdinand finally signed peace treaties with France and Sweden; the Swedes retreated from Prague, but not before looting many valuable treasures, including the Codex Gigas, today preserved in Stockholm. Proche de Belgrade, la Russie a mis en 2015 son veto à la résolution de l’ONU qualifiant le massacre de génocide. Massacre de protestants par les catholiques pendant les guerres de religions. One of the most prosperous areas of the Empire, Bohemia's electoral vote was also essential to ensuring Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Emperor, and Habsburg prestige required its recapture. France (from 1635), Imperial alliance The first period from 1618 to 1635 was a struggle within the Holy Roman Empire, fought between Emperor Ferdinand II and his internal opponents, with external powers playing a supportive role. Each member was represented in the Imperial Diet; prior to 1663, this assembled on an irregular basis, and was primarily a forum for discussion, rather than legislation. [23], As a result, when the Imperial Diet opened in February 1608, the Protestants demanded formal confirmation of the Augsburg settlement, which was especially significant for Calvinists like Frederick IV, Elector Palatine who had not been included. In 1618, the Bohemian Estates deposed the Catholic Ferdinand II as King of Bohemia; they offered the Crown to the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate, who accepted. A specially designed Malefizhaus, or 'crime house', was erected containing a torture chamber, whose walls were adorned with Bible verses, where the accused were interrogated. L'instabilité politique et religieuse du Saint Empire romain germanique est à l'origine du conflit : pour résister aux progrès de la Réforme catholique, les princes protestants, dont certains ont adhéré au calvinisme, confession non reconnue par la paix d'Augsbourg (1555), se regroupent en une Union évangélique(1608). [63], Expectations of widespread support proved unrealistic; by the end of 1630, the only new Swedish ally was Magdeburg, which was besieged by Tilly. La guerre de Trente Ans est traditionnellement découpée en 4 périodes successives. Leopold suffered 20,000 casualties, including 5,000 prisoners and 46 guns, compared to Swedish losses of 4,000 killed or wounded. It also provided opportunities for external opponents of the Habsburgs, including the Ottoman Empire and Savoy. These diaries can be viewed (in German) at: This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 16:52. Parce que cette histoire d’un conflit qui s’est passé il y a 350 ans et plus, nous renvoie à de l’actualité. De 1618 à 1648, la guerre de Trente ans a mis le Saint Empire à feu et à sang. [82], In May, a Bavarian army under Franz von Mercy destroyed a French detachment at Herbsthausen, but he was defeated and killed at Second Nördlingen in August. [94], Preliminary discussions began in 1642 but only became serious in 1646; talks were split between the towns of Münster and Osnabrück. Possession of these fortresses gave France effective control of Piedmont, protected the Alpine passes into Southern France, and allowed them to threaten Milan at will. The process, or 'Congress' model, was adopted for negotiations at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668, Nijmegen in 1678, and Ryswick in 1697; unlike the 19th century 'Congress' system, these were to end wars, rather than prevent them, so references to the 'balance of power' can be misleading. While technically legal, politically it was extremely unwise, since doing so would alter nearly every single state boundary in North and Central Germany, deny the existence of Calvinism and restore Catholicism in areas where it had not been a significant presence for nearly a century. Although the battle was far from decisive, the rebels were demoralised by lack of pay, shortages of supplies and disease, while the countryside had been devastated by Imperial troops. Le sac de Magdebourg, le siège et le pillage de la ville protestante en Allemagne en grande partie par les forces de l'Empire romain pendant la Guerre de Trente Ans. Opposant les Habsbourg d’Autriche et d’Espagne aux puissances européennes, Danemark, Suède, France, ce conflit majeur de l’Europe moderne a déchiré les états allemands impériaux entre eux. [80], In September 1645, the Swedes agreed a six-month truce with Saxony; Ferdinand accepted a military solution was no longer possible, and in October ordered his diplomats to begin serious negotiations at Westphalia. He began negotiations with Wallenstein, who despite his recent victories was concerned by the prospect of Swedish intervention, and thus anxious to make peace. [29], The Jesuit educated Ferdinand once claimed he would rather see his lands destroyed than tolerate heresy for a single day. Enfin Louis XIV s’attache les services de Vauban, qui révolutionne l’art de faire la guerre, après les dérives dévastatrices de la guerre de Trente ans (1618-1648), avec ses pillages et massacres. Five days later, the Prince de Condé won a decisive French victory at Rocroi, although he was unable to take full advantage. Daniel Kehlmann a choisi de lui faire traverser la guerre de Trente Ans, ce conflit qui dévasta l’Europe entre 1618 et 1648. Je pense à … Possession of these territories ensured Danish control of the Elbe and Weser rivers. The Danes were comprehensively beaten at Lutter in August, and Mansfeld's army dissolved following his death in November. In Lorraine, the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, occupied by France since 1552, were formally ceded, as were the cities of the Décapole in Alsace, with the exception of Strasbourg and Mulhouse. Doing so turned the conflict into a contest between Imperial authority and "German liberties", while Catholics saw an opportunity to regain lands lost since 1555. Pendant la guerre de Trente Ans (1618-1648), l'Alsace servit de champ de bataille aux armées impériales, suédoises, weimariennes et françaises. The defection of their German allies led France to join the war directly, which continued until Westphalia in 1648. La dévastation est si grande que l'expression « magdebourisation » Magdeburgisieren reste pendant des décennies synonyme de destruction, de viol et de pillage. [58], Made over-confident by success, in March 1629 Ferdinand passed an Edict of Restitution, which required all lands taken from the Catholic church after 1555 to be returned. In 1635, Ferdinand made peace with his German opponents by accepting their autonomy; in return, they dissolved the Heilbronn and Catholic Leagues. Car cette guerre de religion se mue en une lutte de pouvoir sans merci entre puissances européennes. James responded to this attack on his son-in-law by sending naval forces to threaten Spanish possessions in the Americas and the Mediterranean, and announced he would declare war if Spinola had not withdrawn his troops by spring 1621. Its main provisions included Spanish confirmation of Dutch independence, and acceptance of "German liberties" by the Austrian Habsburgs. This meant each of the 224 member states was either Lutheran, the most usual form of Protestantism, or Catholic, based on the choice made by their ruler. In late August, Gustavus incurred heavy losses in an unsuccessful assault on the town, arguably the greatest blunder in his German campaign. [54], In May 1628, his deputy von Arnim besieged Straslund, the only port with large enough shipbuilding facilities, but this brought Sweden into the war. [59], As ever, Richelieu's policy was to 'arrest the course of Spanish progress', and 'protect her neighbours from Spanish oppression'. "into line with army of Gabriel Bethlen in 1620." Ferdinand accepted the supremacy of the Imperial Diet and legal institutions, reconfirmed the Augsburg settlement, and recognised Calvinism as a third religion. However, the rebels soon found the new French administration differed little from the old, turning the war into a three-sided contest between the Franco-Catalan elite, the rural peasantry, and the Spanish. The French candidate, Charles I Gonzaga, was confirmed as Duke of Mantua; although Richelieu's representative, Cardinal Mazarin, agreed to evacuate Pinerolo, it was later secretly returned under an agreement with Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy. The war originated in differences between German Protestants and Catholics, which were temporarily settled by the 1555 Peace of Augsburg but gradually undermined by political and religious tensions. [91], Throughout the 1630s, attempts to increase taxes in order to pay for the costs of the war in the Netherlands led to protests throughout Spanish territories; in 1640, these erupted into open revolts in Portugal and Catalonia, supported by Richelieu as part of his 'war by diversion'. [34], By mid-June, the Bohemian army under Thurn was outside Vienna; Mansfeld's defeat by Spanish-Imperial forces at Sablat forced him to return to Prague, but Ferdinand's position continued to worsen. Des témoignages de mercenaires, exhumés des archives allemandes, explicitent le fait de pratiquer la guerre et la destruction contre une bonne solde. [121], Elsewhere, persecution followed Imperial military success, expanding into Baden and the Palatinate following their reconquest by Tilly, then into the Rhineland. At the same time, the Swedes under Johan Banér marched into Brandenburg; victory at Wittstock on 4 October 1636 regained most of the ground lost after Nördlingen. [127], By laying the foundations of the modern nation state, Westphalia changed the relationship of subjects and their rulers. [100], The Peace was later denounced by Pope Innocent X, who regarded the bishoprics ceded to France and Brandenburg as property of the Catholic church, and thus his to assign. Ces périodes sont : 1. la période bohémienne et palatine de 1618 à 1625 ; 2. Then the predominant global power, the Spanish Empire included the Spanish Netherlands, much of Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas, while Austria remained focused on Central Europe. Principauté archiépiscopale de Magdebourg, Portail du Saint-Empire romain germanique, https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sac_de_Magdebourg&oldid=169628062, Bataille impliquant le Saint-Empire romain germanique, Portail:Saint-Empire romain germanique/Articles liés, licence Creative Commons attribution, partage dans les mêmes conditions, comment citer les auteurs et mentionner la licence. 1631, 20 mai: Sac de Magdebourg: 25 000: Basse-Saxe: La ville est pillée par les troupes impériales lors de la guerre de Trente Ans, seuls 5 000 des 30 000 habitants survivent. In the end, the Portuguese retained control of Brazil and Angola, but the Dutch captured the Cape of Good Hope, as well as Portuguese possessions in Malacca, the Malabar Coast, the Moluccas and Ceylon. With the exception of the 1639 to 1642 Piedmontese Civil War, this secured the French position in Northern Italy for the next twenty years. Habsburg pre-eminence in Europe curtailed, Anti-Imperial alliance: [75], Ferdinand II died in February 1637 and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III, who faced a rapidly deteriorating military situation. [90] Combined with the diversion of Imperial resources caused by Swedish intervention in 1630, this led to the Treaty of Cherasco in June 1631. [18] In addition, rulers might share the same religion but have different economic and strategic objectives; for much of the war, the Papacy supported France against the Habsburgs. The 1555 Peace of Augsburg was intended to end conflict between German Protestants and Catholics by establishing the principle of cuius regio, eius religio. [130] Although the Franco-Spanish conflict continued until 1659 and Spain remained a global force for another two centuries, Westphalia allowed Louis XIV of France to complete the process of replacing her as the predominant European power. De plundering van Wommelgem, un tableau de Sebastiaan Vrancx, qui illustre les massacres de la guerre de Trente ans. These trials lasted five years and claimed over one thousand lives, including long-time Bürgermeister, or Mayor, Johannes Junius, and Dorothea Flock, second wife of Georg Heinrich Flock, whose first wife had also been executed for witchcraft in May 1628. [15], These figures can be misleading, since Franz calculated the absolute decline in pre and post-war populations, or 'total demographic loss'. Les princes catholiques leur opposent la Sainte Ligue allemande (1609), dirigée par le duc Maximilien Ierde Bavière. [118], Contemporaries spoke of a 'frenzy of despair' as people sought to make sense of the turmoil and hardship unleashed by the war. [129], Bautzen is besieged by Saxon troops, 1620 by Matthäus Merian, Battle of Frankfurt an der Oder,April 1631, Death of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden at the Battle of Lützen,6 November 1632, The capture of Rheinfelden by the troops of the Duke of Feria,1633, Unsuccessful Swedish-Transylvanian siege of Brno, 1645, 1618–1648 multi-state war in Central Europe, Phase II; France joins the war 1635 to 1648. Occasionally it meant full-scale conflict, such as the 1583 to 1588 Cologne War, caused by the conversion to Calvinism of the Prince Elector, Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg. [128], The benefits of Westphalia for the Swedes proved short-lived. La guerre de Trente Ans a été menée entre 1618 et 1648. [21], Before Augsburg, unity of religion compensated for lack of strong central authority; once removed, it presented opportunities for those who sought to further weaken it. Il s'agit d'un des plus importants massacres de la guerre de Trente Ans tant par l'étendue des pertes humaines que par la cruauté de la tuerie. In return, Ferdinand made concessions to Spain in Northern Italy and Alsace, and agreed to support their offensive against the Dutch. [35] Gabriel Bethlen, Calvinist Prince of Transylvania, invaded Hungary with Ottoman support, although the Habsburgs persuaded them to avoid direct involvement, helped by the outbreak of hostilities with Poland in 1620, followed by the 1623 to 1639 war with Persia. Düsseldorf Museum Kunstpalast 02 / 02 Actuel, pourquoi ? Heilbronn League (1631–1635) [81], In 1643, Frederick III of Denmark re-entered the conflict as an Imperial ally, threatening the Swedes with a war on two fronts. [96] The Dutch were also given a monopoly over trade conducted through the Scheldt estuary, confirming the commercial ascendancy of Amsterdam; Antwerp, capital of the Spanish Netherlands and previously the most important port in Northern Europe, would not recover until the late 19th century. Sweden (from 1630) Despite these setbacks, the Habsburg lands suffered less from the war than many others and became a far more coherent bloc with the absorption of Bohemia, and restoration of Catholicism throughout their territories. Pendant la guerre de Trente Ans (1618-1648), l'Alsace servit de champ de bataille aux armées impériales, suédoises, weimariennes et françaises. … This was exacerbated by several legal disputes over property, all of which were decided in favour of the Catholic Church. Comme ville protestante et ville hanséatique, Magdebourg, aujourd'hui capitale de la Saxe-Anhalt, est assiégée par l'armée impériale de novembre 1630 jusqu'au 10 mai 1631. The Palatinate was clearly lost; in March, James instructed Vere to surrender Frankenthal, while Tilly's victory over Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn in August completed military operations. Hesse-Kassel (from 1629) The future Pope Alexander VII and the Venetian Republic acted as mediators, with a total of 109 delegations attending at one time or other. During 1629, another 274 suspected witches were killed in the Bishopric of Eichstätt, plus another 50 in the adjacent Duchy of Palatinate-Neuburg. Attempts by Maximilian of Bavaria and John George of Saxony to broker a negotiated solution ended when Matthias died in March 1619, since it convinced many the Habsburgs were fatally damaged. Ferdinand paid Wallenstein by letting him confiscate estates, extort ransoms from towns, and allowing his men to plunder the lands they passed through, regardless of whether they belonged to allies or opponents. In addition, Christians residing in states where they were a minority, such as Catholics living under a Lutheran ruler, were guaranteed freedom of worship and equality before the law. This is generally seen as the point when the conflict ceased to be primarily a German civil war. [109] Poor harvests throughout the 1630s and repeated plundering of the same areas led to widespread famine; contemporaries record people eating grass, or too weak to accept alms, while instances of cannibalism were common. [60] With French resources tied up in Italy, he helped negotiate the September 1629 Truce of Altmark between Sweden and Poland, freeing Gustavus Adolphus to enter the war. Il met au point la guerre de siège, les armées marchant de siège en siège, de ville en ville, obtenant la reddition de l’une avant de … Prolongement des guerres de religion, la guerre de Trente Ans apporta l’Alsace au royaume de France. An overland route connecting Habsburg possessions in Italy to Flanders, it allowed him to move troops and supplies by road, rather than sea where the Dutch navy held the advantage. The treaty confirmed Dutch independence, although the Imperial Diet did not formally accept that it was no longer part of the Empire until 1728. The Peace consisted of three separate agreements; the Peace of Münster between Spain and the Dutch Republic, the treaty of Osnabrück between the Empire and Sweden, plus the treaty of Münster between the Empire and France. In an event known as the Third Defenestration of Prague, the two men and their secretary Philip Fabricius were thrown out of the castle windows, although all three survived. Saxony (1630–1635)[note 1] Fighting did not end immediately, since demobilising over 200,000 soldiers was a complex business, and the last Swedish garrison did not leave Germany until 1654. Until the mid-20th century, it was seen as predominantly a German civil war and considered one of the European wars of religion. While this gave them seats in the Imperial Diet, it also brought them conflict with both Brandenburg-Prussia and Saxony, who were competitors in Pomerania. Charles I of England allowed Christian to recruit up to 9,000 Scottish mercenaries, but they took time to arrive, and while able to slow Wallenstein's advance, were insufficient to stop him. Le 20 mai 1631, le comte de Pappenheim et le comte de Tilly s'emparent de la ville. In May 1625, the Lower Saxony kreis elected Christian their military commander, although not without resistance; Saxony and Brandenburg viewed Denmark and Sweden as competitors, and wanted to avoid either becoming involved in the Empire. Comme ville protestante et ville hanséatique, Magdebourg, est assiégée par l'armée impériale de novembre 1630 jusqu'au 10 mai 1631. A combined Imperial-Catholic League army funded by Maximilian and led by Count Tilly pacified Upper and Lower Austria before invading Bohemia, where they defeated Christian of Anhalt at the White Mountain in November 1620. L'Espagne résiste, profitant des troubles de la Fronde. [39] Many Protestants supported Ferdinand because they objected to deposing the legally elected king of Bohemia, and now opposed Frederick's removal on the same grounds. [112], In 1940, agrarian historian Günther Franz published Der Dreissigjährige Krieg und das Deutsche Volk, a detailed analysis of regional data from across Germany; his membership of the Nazi Party meant his objectivity was challenged post-1945, but recent reviews support his general findings.
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